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Examined Doctrine
Scripture & Authority Authority of Scripture

Is the Bible the final word, or does the church’s tradition share that authority?

Everyone on this map treats the Bible as God’s word and appeals to it. They split over where the church’s handed-down teaching and its leaders fit: under Scripture and checked by it, beside it with real weight of their own, or as the place where Scripture is received and read. That gives three views.

The 3 views side by side

Scripture alone is finalSola scripturaScripture together with church traditionScripture and traditionScripture first, read within the church
What has the final say?

Scripture alone. It is the only rule that cannot be wrong, and councils, church fathers and teachers are all tested by it.

From Westminster Confession, Second London Baptist Confession, Martin Luther, John MacArthur, R.C. Sproul, Jonathan Edwards, Josh Howerton, John Owen

Scripture together with what the church has handed down. Tradition carries real weight of its own beside the written text.

From Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, Council of Chalcedon, Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus

Scripture. It is the highest authority, but it is received and read inside the church.

From Athanasius of Alexandria, Augustine of Hippo, Irenaeus of Lyons

Where does the church fit?

Creeds, councils and church history help, but none of them is free from error. Each is checked against Scripture.

From Josh Howerton, Michael S. Heiser, R.C. Sproul, Philip Melanchthon, Tim Keller, The Church of Eleven22 Statement of Faith

The church settles disputed questions. Councils define the faith and forbid anyone to teach a different one.

From Council of Nicaea I, Council of Constantinople I, Council of Ephesus, Council of Chalcedon, John Chrysostom

It hands on the apostles’ teaching in the open, where anyone can check it. Augustine treats recognizing which books are Scripture as the church’s act.

From Irenaeus of Lyons, Augustine of Hippo

The main argument

Scripture’s authority comes from God, not from the church’s approval. Calvin argues the foundation comes before the building, so the apostles’ teaching came before the church.

From John Calvin, John Owen, Second London Baptist Confession, Huldrych Zwingli, Westminster Confession

The apostles handed on teaching by word of mouth as well as in writing, and both deserve the same trust. Chrysostom reads this from 2 Thessalonians 2:15.

From John Chrysostom, Basil the Great

Against teachers who claimed a secret spoken wisdom, Irenaeus says the true tradition is public and passes on what Scripture teaches. Athanasius presses his opponents to name where their teaching came from.

From Irenaeus of Lyons, Athanasius of Alexandria

Where they differ among themselves

How much room tradition keeps. Zwingli removes anything without a Bible verse behind it, while Melanchthon and Ortlund stress continuity with the ancient church.

From Huldrych Zwingli, Philip Melanchthon, Gavin Ortlund

How far the church’s word reaches. Basil lets Scripture decide disputed doctrine and keeps unwritten tradition for practices like rites, and Ockham argues that a pope or a council can err.

From Basil the Great, William of Ockham

Very little here. Augustine gives the church the most visible part, treating the recognition of Scripture as something the church does.

From Augustine of Hippo, Athanasius of Alexandria, Irenaeus of Lyons

Key passage
2 Timothy 3:16-172 Thessalonians 2:151 Timothy 3:15
In their own words
“The rule is: The Word of God shall establish articles of faith, and no one else, not even an angel.”
Martin Luther, Smalcald Articles II.ii.15 (Triglot, Bente & Dau trans.)PRIMARY SOURCE
“Hence it is manifest, that they did not deliver all things by Epistle, but many things also unwritten, and in like manner both the one and the other are worthy of credit. Therefore let us think the tradition of the Church also worthy of credit. It is a tradition, seek no farther.”
John Chrysostom, Homily 4 on 2 Thessalonians, on 2 Thessalonians 2:15 (NPNF1-13)DISPUTED READING
“the Gospel has come down to us... handed down to us in the Scriptures, to be the ground and pillar of our faith.”
Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies III.1.1PRIMARY SOURCE
On this map
23 figures9 figures3 figures

Who holds which view

23
9
3
1
Scripture alone is finalScripture together with church traditionScripture first, read within the churchNo stance
36 OF 36 FIGURES · 26 QUOTED · 1 WITHOUT A STANCE

Scripture alone is final

Scripture alone is the final, only infallible authority

Huldrych Zwingli1484 – 1531AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDJacobus Arminius1560 – 1609AFFIRMS°STANDARD ACCOUNTJohn Calvin1509 – 1564AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDMartin Luther1483 – 1546AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDPhilip Melanchthon1497 – 1560AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDJohn Owen1616 – 1683AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDJonathan Edwards1703 – 1758AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDSecond London Baptist Confession1689AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDWestminster Confession1646AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDGeorge Whitefield1714 – 1770LEANSDISPUTED READING❝ QUOTEDJohn Wesley1703 – 1791AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDCharles Grandison Finney1792 – 1875LEANSPRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDBilly Graham1918 – 2018AFFIRMSPRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDGavin OrtlundlivingAFFIRMS°STANDARD ACCOUNTJohn MacArthur1939 – 2025AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDJohn Piperb. 1946AFFIRMS°STANDARD ACCOUNTJosh HowertonlivingAFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDJustin PeterslivingAFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDMichael S. Heiser1963 – 2023AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDR.C. Sproul1939 – 2017AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDThe Church of Eleven22 Statement of Faithundated (read 2026)AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDTim Keller1950 – 2023AFFIRMSSTANDARD ACCOUNTVoddie Bauchamb. 1969AFFIRMS°STANDARD ACCOUNT

Scripture together with church tradition

Scripture with tradition and church teaching office

Basil the Greatc.330 – 379AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDCouncil of Chalcedon451AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDCouncil of Constantinople I381AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDCouncil of Ephesus431AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDCouncil of Nicaea I325AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDJohn Chrysostomc.347 – 407CONTESTED°DISPUTED READING❝ QUOTEDJohn Duns Scotusc. 1266 – 1308AFFIRMS°STANDARD ACCOUNTThomas Aquinas1225 – 1274AFFIRMS°STANDARD ACCOUNTWilliam of Ockhamc. 1287 – 1347CONTESTED°DISPUTED READING

Scripture first, read within the church

Scripture supreme, recognized and interpreted through the church

Athanasius of Alexandriac.296 – 373AFFIRMS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTEDAugustine of Hippo354 – 430LEANS°STANDARD ACCOUNTIrenaeus of Lyonsc.130 – c.202LEANS°PRIMARY SOURCE❝ QUOTED

Figures who hold no stance here

These are not gaps in the table. Each group below says which kind of blank it is — searched and not found, held open on purpose, never framed in these terms, or deliberately unassigned because no stance fits.

NO POSITION FOUND1 FIGURE

Searched and not located. An honest gap in the map.

How to read a cell — sourcing tiers, blanks, and why some figures are never quoted
PRIMARY SOURCEread in a primary source
STANDARD ACCOUNTstandard scholarly account
DISPUTED READINGdisputed among scholars
NOT LOCATEDnot located in a source

A cell marked quoted carries the figure's own words — 359 of 518of them, about 69%. Where there is no quotation the claim is still sourced, and the tier says how far. 3 figures carry no quotation at all, for reasons that differ: a living author cannot be quoted at length under copyright where Calvin can, and a figure at the standard account tier has simply had no primary-source pass yet. 3 of them state their own reason on their page.

A state label ending in ° was read from the stance, tier and note rather than stated on the map. See themethodology.